Water in the Green Economy: Capacity Development Aspects

This book discusses needs related to capacity development for water resources management, including water supply and sanitation, in the context of the green economy. It showcases theoretical and practical approaches with proven success. Most contributions come from members and partners within the interagency mechanism, UN-Water. The 11 case studies in this book range from innovative design and delivery of capacity development programs related to water in the green economy, market mechanisms, and quality control procedures supporting capacity development success towards the practical implementation of programs to enhance individual and institutional capacity

A New Barrier to Dispersal Trapped Old Genetic Clines That Escaped the Easter Microplate Tension Zone of the Pacific Vent Mussels

Comparative phylogeography of deep-sea hydrothermal vent species has uncovered several genetic breaks between populations inhabiting northern and southern latitudes of the East Pacific Rise. However, the geographic width and position of genetic clines are variable among species. In this report, we further characterize the position and strength of barriers to gene flow between populations of the deep-sea vent mussel Bathymodiolus thermophilus. Eight allozyme loci and DNA sequences of four nuclear genes were added to previously published sequences of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene. Our data confirm the presence of two barriers to gene flow, one located at the Easter Microplate (between 21 degrees 33'S and 31 degrees S) recently described as a hybrid zone, and the second positioned between 7 degrees 25'S and 14 degrees S with each affecting different loci. Coalescence analysis indicates a single vicariant event at the origin of divergence between clades for all nuclear loci, although the clines are now spatially discordant. We thus hypothesize that the Easter Microplate barrier has recently been relaxed after a long period of isolation and that some genetic clines have escaped the barrier and moved northward where they have subsequently been trapped by a reinforcing barrier to gene flow between 7 degrees 25'S and 14 degrees S

Bifurcated trees showing the correspondence between divergence times between sister clades and times of geological formations.

<p>Clades correspond in those identified in Fig. 2. Grey boxes represent the estimated time of the two barriers: EM, time since the first offsetting of overlapping faults leading to the Easter Microplate (dark grey); TF, time since the formation of Gofar/Discovery transform faults at 7°25′S–14°S latitude (light grey). Striped box represents the estimated time elapsed since the junction between the Pacific Antarctic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise. Grey circles correspond to the geographic position at which the divergence is observed, EM: dark grey and TF: light grey. Dashed lines represent the roots of the trees with the outgroup and calibration point (i.e. <i>Bathymodiolus azoricus</i>, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, about 8–12 Mya). Intervals of estimated divergence, due to the range of the calibration point date, are represented by horizontal thickness of tree nodes. Sulfo1, Sulfotranferase paralogous gene 1; Lyso, Lysozyme; SAHH, S-Adenosyl Homocysteine Hydrolase; mtCOI, mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1; EF1α, Elongation Factor 1α. ^*Lysozyme and EF1α estimates of divergence are indicated but have to be interpreted with caution because these loci did not follow a strict molecular clock.</p

Summary statistics of nucleotide polymorphism according to locality for nuclear genes and mitochondrial gene.

<p><i>h</i>, number of different alleles across individuals; <i>S</i>, number of segregating sites; <i>θ_W</i>, Watterson's theta; <i>π_n</i>, nucleotide diversity. <i>φ_st</i> values correspond to levels of differentiation between populations from 9°N-7°25′S and populations from 14°S-21°33′S. ***, P value < 0.001; NS, P value > 0.05. Sulfo 1, Sulfotransferase paralogue 1; Lyso, Lysozyme; SAHH, S-Adenosyl Homocysteine Hydrolase; EF1α, Elongation Factor 1α; mtCOI, cytochrome oxidase I.</p

Geographic distribution of divergent alleles for three nuclear genes and the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene.

<p>Colours match divergent clades identified in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0081555#pone-0081555-g002" target="_blank">Figure 2</a>. Stripes indicate the presence of the “deletion” in the Lysozyme gene on either the yellow clade (red stripes on yellow background) or the blue clade (red stripes on blue background). The dashed line depicts the recent barrier to gene flow identified by the Monmonier analysis. The white-block arrow represents the hypothesized northward genetic shift of the tension zone for some genes. Sulfo 1, Sulfotransferase paralogue 1; Lyso, Lysozyme; SAHH, S-Adenosyl Homocysteine Hydrolase; EF1α, Elongation Factor 1α; mtCOI, cytochrome oxidase I; EM, Easter Microplate; GRG, Galapagos Rose Garden; GMB, Galapagos Mussel Bed.</p

Localisation of individuals with both north and south type alleles in SAHH using RFLP analyses.

<p>N/S individuals, individuals that present one allele from the northern clade (blue clade in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0081555#pone-0081555-g002" target="_blank">Figure 2</a>) and one from the southern clade (yellow clade in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0081555#pone-0081555-g002" target="_blank">Figure 2</a>). Left Y-axis is the number of N/S individuals. Right Y-axis is the total number of individuals.</p

Location and sample size of populations sampled for allozymes (n_allo), nuclear genes (n_SAHH, n_Lyso, n_Sulfo1, n_EF1α) and mitochondrial (n_mtCOI) gene.

<p>GR, Galapagos Rift; EPR, East Pacific Rise; PAR, Pacific Antarctic Rise. Depth is given meters. Sulfo 1, Sulfotransferase paralogue 1; Lyso, Lysozyme; SAHH, S-Adenosyl Homocysteine Hydrolase; EF1α, Elongation Factor 1α; mtCOI, cytochrome oxidase I. n_SAHH, n_Lyso, n_Sulfo1, n_EF1α, total number of recaptured individuals for each nuclear gene. *, sequences from <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0081555#pone.0081555-Won1" target="_blank">[15]</a>, <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0081555#pone.0081555-Plouviez2" target="_blank">[17]</a>. ^‡, populations used for the Monmonier analysis.</p

Median Joining Networks on the three nuclear genes and the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene.

<p>For each gene, the sizes of haplotype/allele circles and lengths of connecting lines are proportional to the number of individuals and the number of mutations that separate two linked haplotypes/alleles, respectively (length is not reflected in the 16-substitution link indicated on the mtCOI network). Colours represent divergent clades used for mapping the geographic distribution of alleles in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0081555#pone-0081555-g003" target="_blank">Figure 3</a>. For the nuclear genes, dark blue circles correspond to clades 1 and yellow circles to clades 2 in the manuscript. For mtCOI, light blue circles = clade 1, dark blue circles = clade 2, yellow circles = clade 3. For the Lysozyme gene, position of the 1-bp deletion in the network is represented by red stripes within both the yellow and the blue circles. *, position of individuals from 38°S in the network. Sulfo 1, Sulfotransferase paralogue 1; Lyso, Lysozyme; SAHH, S-Adenosyl Homocysteine Hydrolase; EF1α, Elongation Factor 1α; mtCOI, cytochrome oxidase I.</p

Relationship between pairwise genetic distances (θ/(1-θ)) from allozymes and geographic distances (in kilometres).

<p>Relationship between pairwise genetic distances (θ/(1-θ)) from allozymes and geographic distances (in kilometres).</p

IMa2 estimates and the 95% Highest Posterior Density (HPD) intervals of migration and demographic parameters across the 7°25′S-14°S barrier to gene flow.

<p>L-HPD, lower 95% Highest Posterior Density; H-HPD, higher 95% Highest Posterior Density. <i>θ</i>, demographic parameter estimated by IMa2. <i>N</i>, calibration of <i>θ</i> in number of individuals. <i>m</i>, migration parameters estimated by IMa2. <i>M</i>, calibration of <i>m</i> in number of individuals. <i>_N</i>, north of the barrier; <i>_S</i>, south of the barrier; <i>_A</i>, ancestral population; forward in time, <i>_N-S</i>, migration from north to south; <i>_S-N</i>, migration from south to north.</p